UNIT # 2:
History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport
Adapted and expanded from lecture notes by Mechikoff & Estes (1998)
|
| UNIT OBJECTIVES
|
| By the completion of this unit the
student will be able to |
discuss the causes for the
evolution of the major civilizations of the ancient world and the
development of their education as well as physical education systems
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- the Greek civilization and its
contribution to, and lasting effects on current day philosophies and
practices
- contrast the Spartan and the
Athenian educational systems and highlight the problems and
solutions to current thinking and practices in the education &
physical education systems in America
- discuss the views of body and mind
advanced by Greek philosophers and its influence on contemporary
views and the forces, beliefs and philosophy behind the on-going
debate of "educating the physical" versus "educating
through the physical."
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|
| PREHISTORY TO
ANCIENT GREECE |
| What conditions led to the evolution
of play and games? |
| For tens of thousand of years Homo
sapiens lived in caves: hunters, food gatherers, and nomads
|
| About ten thousand years ago humans
started living in settlements along great rivers: Yang Tze, Ganges,
Euphrates & Tigris and the Nile (stable supply of water)
|
| discovery of farming, specialized
production of goods & the exchange of goods cessation of a nomadic
existence & control of the environment social structure and
organization and the evolution of a complex civilization |
| THEORIES ABOUT THE
ORIGINS OF PLAY |
| 1) Play as a utilitarian
behavior--play emerged from and was linked to survival skills such as
hunting, fishing, and boxing. |
| 2) Play as an instinctive
behavior--humans have a natural need for play (play behaviors are also
readily observed in the animal kingdom) and thus have always played
whether they need to practice or acquire a skill or not. What people
learn is immaterial to whether or not people play. |
| 3) Play as a ritualistic
behavior--games explain forces in the world that are not understood. By
participating in the ritual one explains the meaning of a certain kind
of event. |
| FROM THE ABOVE DISCUSSION COMES THE
ASSOCIATION OF WORK AND PLAY. WHEN PLAY IS UTILITARIAN, THEN IT BECOMES
WORK. WHEN PLAY IS FREE, IT SEEMS TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH WHAT WE CONSIDER
PLAY. |
| THE ORIGINS OF
BALL GAMES |
| As far back as we know people have
played ball games. There are several possible explanations:
|
| 1) Ball games are tied to religious
events and magical functions. We now take for granted the
characteristics of a ball, but ancient cultures thought the perfections
of a sphere was godlike. |
| 2) One function of ball games which
appears to be pre-eminent was a fertility function. Games were played to
rejoice in the production of food, children, and the seasons. The
association of games with fertility pops up throughout history. For
example: |
- Winter breaks, Spring comes in. The
earth is going through a process of rebirth. People celebrate by
playing games.
- Another time of play is in the Fall
because of the harvest.
- Another time of play is at the
height of the Summer when the days become longer and spring is on
its way.
- finally, Winter solstice (sol, the
sun + sistere, to cause to stand still--either of two points on the
sun s ecliptic at which it is farthest north or farthest south of
the equator) a time of celebration as the days become longer and
Spring is on its way.
|
| THESE TRANSLATE ROUGHLY IN MODERN
TIMES TO EASTER, THANKSGIVING, CHRISTMAS, AND THE ADVENT OF SUMMER.
SPRING IS BIRTH, SUMMER IS JOY, FALL IS HARVEST, WINTER IS DEATH.
|
| There are no written records of
primitive societies that existed 10,000 years ago. Primitive societies
still exist in remote and isolated parts of Australia, Africa and Brazil
to name a few places. One may assume that the currently existing
primitive societies provide a window through which modern, progressive
civilizations may observe life as it was 10,000 years ago. There are two
major problems with this assumption: (1) How do we know that all
cultures were exactly like the currently identified societies? and (2)
How do we ascertain that we made progress while they were stagnating?
With all the troubles of modern world survival and damage to the
environment primitive life style may not necessarily be an inferior
alternative (note the connotation of the word primitive ). |
| DOES THE DEBATE OVER THE VALUE OF
SANDLOT PLAY AS OPPOSED TO THE VALUE OF HIGHLY ORGANIZED SPORTS FOR
YOUTH RING A BELL? |
| ARE HIGHLY COMPETITIVE AND
SOPHISTICATED SPORTS PROGRAMS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS? SHOULD VARSITY ATHLETICS IN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM BE
SUPPORTED BY THE TAX PAYER'S MONEY OR SHOULD THEY BE ABOLISHED?
(consider the goals of physical education in Athens and Sparta and the
goals of physical education as expressed by the "Commission on
Teacher Credentialing, State of California, 1994, Physical Education
Teacher Preparation in California: Standards of Quality and
Effectiveness for Subject Matter Programs"). |
| IN LIGHT OF THE ABOVE DISCUSSION, HOW
SHOULD TEAM SPORTS BE TAUGHT? IS THERE A NEED TO BUILD AND MAINTAIN
EQUIPMENT THAT CORRESPONDS TO THE SPECIFICATIONS OF PROFESSIONAL SPORTS?
|
| PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT IN ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS |
| 1. China--the Chou Dynasty (1122 B.C.
- 256 B.C.) Similar to early Western civilizations the early Chinese
people engaged in physical activities that included combative, play, and
personal hygiene aspects. The Chou Dynasty is the Eastern culture's
equivalent of the early Greeks. During almost 900 years laws, customs,
family organization and systems evolved. Physical education included
activities such as bow-and arrow shooting, a form of football,
wrestling, boxing, fencing, boat races, rope pulling (the rope could be
a mile long with residents of one town competing with residents of the
another town), and chariot racing. |
| The very popular rise of martial arts
in the U.S. characterizes the entire history of China. While golf is
presumed to have evolved in Western Europe, the Chinese played a golf
like game almost one thousand years ago. |
| The Chinese participated in a wide
range of games and activities that emphasized both the perfection of the
body along with the purity of the mind and character. |
| 2. India's civilization is just as old
as China's. However, ancestor worship, mystic philosophies and rigid
social order limited education in general and physical education in
particular, in scope and importance. Physical education included dance
and served mainly religious and ritualistic needs. |
| 3. The Middle East (Sumer, Egypt,
Assyria, Babylonia, the Hebrews, and Persia). The civilizations of the
great rivers Egypt & Sumer are generally regarded as the origins of
urban civilized life. Sumer and Egypt and later Assyria, Babylonia, and
the Hebrews used a utilitarian approach to physical education.
Activities included horsemanship, archery, ball games, and dance .
|
| One of the greatest influences on
world history and physical education stemmed from a small yet sturdy
nation--the Hebrews. Josephus Phlavious, a former general in the Jewish
rebellion against Rome that ended in 70 C.E., who later turned historian
for the Romans wrote the following (he probably attempted to present his
people in the most positive way to the non-Jewish reader): |
| "Our laws tell us to do many
things for all people. We must give fire, water, and food to anyone who
needs them. We give them proper directions. We don t let a corpse go
unburied. We are supposed to treat even our enemies with decency. We don
t set fire to their country or chop down their fruit trees. We don't
loot those killed in battle and we must not ill-treat captives,
particularly women. Our law is so concerned with being gentle and humane
that it even has rules about how we are to treat our animals . . .
|
| Think about the Judeo-Christian
philosophy and the concept of "sportspersonship."
|
| ANCIENT GREECE:
THE ROOTS OF WESTERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SPORT |
| The Greeks mark the beginning of
western civilization. They were the first group to provide a systematic
and philosophical attitude toward education, physical education and
sport. |
| THE MINOAN
CIVILIZATION |
| The Minoan civilization evolved some
4,000 years ago. Kanosis, on the Island of Create served as the Minoan
civilization's center. Surrounded by sea, and with a strong fleet the
Minoan evolved into a powerful thalasocracy (maritime supremacy). The
Minoan town had almost no walls (like in later time Sparta). The Minoan
civilization reached its peak by the year 2,000 B.C.E., and it
maintained cultural and commercial links with the Egyptians, Assyrians
and Babylonians. |
| Sir Arthur Evans studied the Minoan
literature (Linear A; The Myceneans' writing style "Linear B"
was the precursor of later Grecian writings prior to and during the
Homeric period up until the end of the geometric period). |
| Excavations in Kanosis: Architecture &
artifacts--Gods (animals, horns [Bull/Ox] and sports (boxing ,wrestling,
and bull jumping [as forms of entertainment during funerals]).
|
| THE MYCENAEAN
CIVILIZATION |
| Around 1,700-1,600 B.C.E., a new
thalosocracy started to evolve in the Peloponnesus in the town of
Mycenae. The myceneans traded with the cultures around the Mediterranean
and naturally their activities came at the expense of the Minoan
traders. The kings, the nobles, and the high ranked soldiers took part
in sports in the Mycenaean culture. Homer describes chariot races, spear
throwing (similar to the javelin throw), boxing, wrestling (standing),
archery, and footraces. The sport contests were very competitive and
participants were very aggressive. The chariot race, for example,
included fighting among the participants. A boxing fight would end when
one of the opponents was killed, and archery was used only for sporting
purposes since the Myceneans liked a close combat war in which they
could engage in a face to face clash with their opponents. Any special
occasion was a good excuse for the Myceneans to engage in sports. A
funeral, a celebration, a religious ceremony...they loved sports and
participated with lots of fun and joy. Unlike the custom at most
contemporary sports events were the first and second place and sometimes
the third place is recognized, the Myceneans gave prizes to the best
five in each contest. |
| THE GREEKS
|
| The Greeks started forming around
1,800 B.C.E. as the descendants of non-Greek tribes. The third and last
wave of invaders included the Dorian tribes. The Battle of Troy at 1,200
B.C.E. describes the fate of one Greek city state in Homer's epic tale
the Iliad and the Odyssey. |
| At about 1,000 B.C.E. Dorian tribes
descending from the North started attacking the Peloponnesus. Since the
Dorians had better weapons (iron vs. copper) they overcame the very
aggressive and militaristic Myceneans. The Mycenaean civilization was
destroyed with its members scattered over the Mediterranean shores and
the Peloponnesus sunk into a dark age. |
| Homer, a blind Greek poet, lived in
Iona around 850-800 B.C.E.. Homer documented through his poems stories
which were 350-400 years old. There is no original record of the battle
of Troy. The story of Troy was told from one generation to the next.
Culture, tradition and descriptions of significant events were handed
down through the word of mouth. The credibility and reliability of such
a practice may be questionable in some peoples minds. Nevertheless,
since the alternative often is a broken chip of a ceramic pot, sources
such as the Iliad and the Odyssey are invaluable to the understanding of
the early Greek civilization. |
| What have we learned from Homer's
Iliad and the Odyssey? |
| Devotion, strength of will,
competition: A struggle for victory. The funeral games of Patroclus
Odysseus and his ten year trip back home. His adventures and sporting
experiences. The story of a wife's devotion to her husband (strong
family values) |
| GREEK SPORT
|
| Mark the beginning of Western
civilization. The Greeks were the first people to develop a systematic
and philosophical attitude toward life. The attempt by the modern world
to logically understand and explain nature and one's existence is a
direct result of the influence of ancient Greek culture. Similar
attitudes are manifested in our attempt to understand physical education
and sport. |
| Many of our current attitudes toward
the Greeks were derived from British Historians' views and
interpretations. The British really liked the Greeks. They believed the
Greeks were a very important, idealistic culture. The "positive"
of the Greek culture were very similar to the "positives" of
the British culture: democracy of the upper class, intellectualism,
amateurism. |
| Our attitudes toward competition is
very similar to that of the Greeks. Contemporary Americans accept the
idea that competition is inherently good. |
| Several myths that deal with sport
affect our attitude toward ancient Greek culture. |
- MYTH: The Greeks had a "golden
age" from 600 to 400 B.C.E. and then declined until they were
an unremarkable culture by 400 A.D.
|
- This is over 1,000 years! Note: This
is a generalization that causes one to overlook the variations
within that culture. Secondly, the "golden age" is a term
that modern historians applied to the Greeks because they liked some
of the stereotypes they built into their own descriptions of that
culture.
REALITY: The Greeks did not know they were living in a "golden
age," this is a term bestowed upon them.
- MYTH: The ancient Greeks invented
amateurism.
REALITY: Amateurism is a British idea that was conceived in
the 19th century.
|
- The reason we study Greek sport
history, though, is that the idea of "professionalism" in
Greek Olympic athletes caused the demise of the golden age of sports
(the story of Milo).
|
H. A. Harris: "When money comes
in at the door, sport flies out the window."
Those that prefer amateur competition can trace their feelings
back to both these British historians and the Greeks who competed.
|
| NOTE: To a certain extent, we study
history to debunk myths and to understand what really happened. We can
then better understand our own behaviors and attitudes. |
| HEROIC GREECE AND
TROY: 1193-1183 B.C.E. |
| We know of the ancient games through
poets and historians. The Greeks used the method of oral history. The
earliest literary records are those attributed to Homer: ILIAD AND
THE ODYSSEY. |
| Homer writes about athletic feats,
most notably the funeral games of Patroclus. He addresses his poems to
an educated, athletics minded culture. Games according to Homer, were
already very important at the time of Troy. A precedent had been set at
that time for games to be held in honor of gods or for fallen warriors.
|
| Agamemnon, Menalaus, Nestor, and other
leaders of Troy descended from families that were interested in
promoting athletic games in Hellas. By the time of the Trojan war, the
chariot race, boxing, wrestling, the foot race, race in armor, and the
discus were already competitive events. |
Other than Homer the most noted poets
and historians of the time were Thucydides and Herodotus. Pintar,
Strabo, Phlegmon, Pausanias, and Eusebius round out the picture we
interpret today.
Athletic games were the usual features of the day wherever and
whenever Greeks met in recreational assembly, whether it was to worship
gods or to honor departed heroes. The Greek culture experienced
practically no change from the times of Troy to the fall of Corinth to
the Romans in 143 B.C.E. Eventually the Romans became the political,
economic, and military power of the Mediterranean, still the Greek
culture had a strong influence on the Roman culture. |
Homer tells us of Greece. He lived in
Iona 850-800 B.C.E. Homer was a blind poet who made his living by
repeating stories that were 350 - 400 years old.
Oral tales repeated over and over again. This was the method of
expressing history and tradition from one generation to the next. Was it
accurate? Yes, fairly accurate. |
| From Homer's stories on thing is
clear: The Greeks loved sports. |
| Both the Iliad and the Odyssey have
stories of agon, spirit, competing--a struggle for victory. |
| Many original Greek terms are still in
use today: agon, meeting the pain of competing and the competition
itself. We now have the word "agony." |
| Historia in Greek
means knowledge gained from inquiry. |
| Arete which means the
striving for excellence. Do not confuse this with striving for victory.
|
| Athletes means "one
who competes for a prize." There is no word for amateur.
|
| Contestari to call
to witness (Latin) to bear witness together--the origin of the words "test,"
"contest," and "contestants." |
| Philos loving, friendly,
having an affinity for, and "sophia" wisdom are the Greek
source for the word philosophy or the love of wisdom. |
| Gymnastics which
originally meant to compete in the nude ("gymnos" in Greek
means naked or bare) is now used for the word for the sport of
gymnastics. The word gymnasium is now used for a place of competition.
|
| What is a "gymnasium" or "gymnasia"
in Europe? A secondary school that places a strong emphasis on the
sciences and academics (e.g., in Germany or Israel) and is designed to
prepare students for the university. |
| EARLY GREEKS
|
| Who were the Greeks? Around 1,800
B.C.E. the Greeks started forming as a unique culture. They derived from
non-Greek Minoans who had ended a bronze age around 3,000 B.C.E. This
culture was very aggressive and militaristic. Myceneans destroyed Crete
but assumed the Minoan culture. In time they moved up the Peloponnesus.
|
| The battle of Troy, which is described
in the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer, took place around 1,200 B.C.E.
Homer provides an epic tale of this battle. We have learned a lot about
the Greek culture from this time period thanks to Homer's poem. Modern
historians call this time period "Homeric Greece."
|
| Around 1,000 B.C.E. Dorian Tribes came
from the North and conquered the Myceneans. The mixing of the two
cultures creates a common Greek language, religion, and sport. During
the period of Homeric Greece (800 BC) the Greek culture was simple with
respect to politics and its economics. The Greeks turned to the sea to
develop wealth, especially, those living in the city state of Athens.
This pattern lasted for 300 years, and by 500 B.C.E. Greece became the
center of the economic empire in the Mediterranean. |
Land was owned by a small group of
people that formed an oligarchy--a system in which government and power
is controlled by a few people (Modern Syria, e.g., is controlled by the
Alawies that are less than 11% of the population, also Saudi Arabia and
other Persian Golf nations fall in this category).
Tyrants (tyrannos in Greek) lead a revolt against the oligarchy
and paved the way for the first Democracy (demokratia in Greek) or rule
of the majority through a system of representation of the people. The
tyrants paved the way for a democratic process by creating a mechanism
of government turnover through cooperation. Formerly it was done by
birth. Still, land owners run the show although their fortune was much
newer. These were the only people that were allowed to vote. The
democracy in ancient Greece was a democracy of the wealthy. To possess
voting rights one had to be a citizen--Greek born, own land, slaves, and
be a man. Women were not included in the democratic process.
|
The citizens were the only people who
were allowed to vote. The voters made-up the ruling part of each
city-state. Athens and Sparta were the two most famous city-states.
Athens and Sparta were the two dominant force of the Greek civilization.
By 700 B.C.E. Sparta was already militaristic. Spartans were
contemptuous of intellectualism. They were generally suspicious and
conservative. All that mattered to the Spartans was being a warrior.
Athens was the more democratic of the two city-states, and we know
more about |
| Athens than Sparta because of the
records Athenians kept. Athenians did not like the Spartans, so we must
view what we know of Sparta with suspicion. |
| SPARTA
|
|
The city of Sparta was in the province of Laconia, thus the Spartans are also known
as Laconians. The word "laconic" meaning brief, was derived from the fact that the
Laconians were taught to speak to the point and only when necessary. Alexander the Great's
father, Philip of Macedon once sent an envoy to Sparta stating that "If we enter your city,
we will level it to the ground." The Spatan king's laconic answer "If!" made an impression
on king Philip who decided to leave Sparta alone.
The Spartans are best known for their courage, strength, discipline, and
harsh military training. We believe that Plato modeled his
republic after Sparta. Characteristic of the Spartan system was the fact
that the needs of the state preceded the needs of the individual (Does
the failed communist system's emphasis on state or totalitarian China's
system seem familiar?). Children were with their mothers who served as
state nurses until the child reached the age of seven. Next the child
moved from home to a state run school. From at seven children lived in
barracks until the age of 20. This system facilitated a disciplined
lifestyle. Obviously, education was militaristic. Cheating was O.K. as
long as one did not get caught. Children were not adequately fed, so
they had to steal food. From a very young age Spartan children had to
learn cunningness and basic survival skills.
Education had functional
goals--to prepare the future citizens that will have to live in and cope
with the Spartan system. From the age of 18 to the age of 20 the males
went through a compulsory military training, then the lucky ones that
survived the many wars, served in the military until around the age 50.
The Spartan system produced a strong fighting force that conquered other
city states and kept their citizens as slaves. The ratio of Spartans to
slaves was 1:100. Thus, the Spartans did not have to engage in any type
of regular daily chores except for their military training, physical
education, and preparation for Olympic competition. Activities practiced
in physical education developed survival skills, such as, boxing,
wrestling, running, dancing. |
| Spartans refrained from entering the
boxing event in Olympics in which the rules stated that a participant
must acknowledge defeat or die. The Spartans were not allowed to
acknowledge defeat, so they did not enter. However, the Spartans
produced many famous champions in other Olympic events. |
| A Spartan woman s value was
established by her ability to bear sons. Yet, interestingly, women
comprised a more central role in Spartan culture than Athenian women
did. Spartan women were in charge of the home economics (men were often
gone from home for long periods of time) and also in some instances
would train horses and other chores not typical to Athenian women of the
day. In Athens women were perceived as intellectually inferior an
attitude that was not part of the Spartan culture (Spartans, however,
had very little if any interest in intellectual pursuits). |
| ATHENS
|
| Athens, like Sparta and many of the
early civilizations, had a physical education system with a military
bent. Physical prowess in Athenian culture, however, was secondary to
civic responsibility and virtue. We learned about Athenian education
through Plato, among others. The goal of education generally was to have
harmony between mind and body. |
| It is from the Athenian philosophical
perspective that we get much of our thinking on physical education. The
thoughts of the Greeks from Athens are still with us today. |
| The system of education had some
similarities to Sparta. Children began formal schooling at the age of
seven. The Palaestra was used for physical education, music was studied
and practiced in the gymnasium. Paidotribe charged a fee and ran a
school. |
| Some privately owned and some state
owned facilities for physical education and sports existed in Athens.
Initially those facilities were for the exclusive use of citizens. By
400 B.C.E. the law stated that at least one Athenian parent would make
the child a citizen. |
| Upper classes dominated in sport.
Success in sport meant political power. Families competed against other
families. |
| Athenians were not successful in
Olympics, so no correlation between political power and athletic
greatness can be substantiated. |
| During 500-400 B.C.E. ( golden age )
Athens became the major military and economic power in Greece. The power
at that time shifted from the Oligarches (where the ruling power was in
the hands of few) to a Democracy. |
| As the democratic system in Athens
expanded it placed stronger emphasis on education which resulted in a
culture of individualism. Prior to this trend the state (like in Sparta)
was more important than the individual. With individualism comes Greek
philosophy, which seeks to understand the world. |
| Education places an increasing
emphasis on the mind. The teachers were called sophists (sophist s--wise
man). Socrates is the most famous sophist we know, although he may not
have been the best known in his day. Socrates was put to death for
corrupting the youth. |
| New skills were now needed to maintain
Athens new position as a military and economic power. People needed to
think better for technological and political reasons, and to be better
warriors. |
| Ironically, intellectualism created
people who criticized sport, although these people were a minority.
Plato is considered the father of physical education. Plato means "broad." It may have
described his broad shoulders since he was an accomplished wrestler, or it may have described
his broad forehead as he was a great mathematician and philosopher. It is ironic that one of
history's most famous philosophers may have gotten his nickname from his coach. |
| The goal of education was to have
character, which is developed through education of both body and mind.
|
| PLATO'S REPUBLIC
|
Plato's Republic and philosophy of
physical education.
We believe that Plato modeled his republic after Sparta. Some of
the characteristics of Sparta were: (1) compulsory military training age
18-20; (2) children taken from the home and given an education; (3) the
state was more important than the individual.
Physical education facilitated the goal of military preparation.
Remember that the Greeks in general and the Athenians in particular were
a very aggressive warrior type people.
Physical education as well as literary education is aimed at
developing character. What is character? The ability to know the
difference between the good and the not good; the beautiful and the not
beautiful.
Virtue is the characteristic which is necessary to live the good
life: courage, honesty, harmony, arete (striving for excellence), etc. .
.Simplicity, according to Plato, is very important. One must live off
the land and not engage in too many luxuries (avoid Syracusan and
Sycilian cooking, do not fool around with girls, and avoid the delights
of attic confectionery, and watch out for flatulence
[pretentiousness]!). |
| Physical excellence does not of itself
produce a good mind and character. On the other hand, excellence of mind
and character will make the best of the physique it is given (Plato's
Republic, p. 166) |
| The problem with athletes according to
Plato was that they (1) slept too much--perhaps because of their diet
(athletes consumed large amounts of meat, low carbohydrates, and worked
out all the time. Like many athletes today they needed to sleep to
recover from their workouts. Deviation from their routine led to
Illness. |
|
Plato's idea of a proper curriculum may shed additional light on his philosophy and views:
... the exact sciences - arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, astronomy, and harmonics -
would first be studied for ten years to familiarise the mind with relations that can only be
apprehended by thought. Five years would then be given to the still severer study of 'dialectic'.
Dialectic is the art of conversation, of question and answer; and according to Plato, dialectical
skill is the ability to pose and answer questions about the essences of things. The dialectician
replaces hypotheses with secure knowledge, and his aim is to ground all science, all knowledge,
on some 'unhypothetical first principle'. (Quote reproduced from article by:
J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson
|
| In summary the purpose of education
is not to train the mind and the body but rather to train for character.
If one concentrates only on the mind, then the body becomes soft and one
is what Homer calls "A feeble fighter." Strict physicality
encourages confidence and energy and increases a person's confidence
(today we use the terms self-esteem & self-efficacy), yet at the
same time will cause an individual to become an unintelligent
Philistine, with no use for reasoned discussion, and an animal addiction
to settle everything by brute force. "[the Philistine's] life is
one of clumsy ignorance, unrelieved by grace and beauty."
|
| THE END OF THE
ANCIENT GREEKS |
The decline and fall of ancient Greek
sport is related to other aspects of Greek culture.
The erosion of their military in wars of attrition--Athens and
Sparta conducted a war that lasted thirty years around 400 B.C.E. At the
end of that war both city states were drained and never really
recovered.
In addition, the Greeks lost their economic base to Rome, which
was more efficient at commerce--roads were better, and the Romans did
not turn the vanquished cultures into slave states but rather let them
keep their independence and demanded them to pay taxes to Rome. This
made Rome very rich. The Greek commerce was sea based since they lived
in a very mountainous region were travel was very hard. Rome developed
roads and communications that were more dependable and efficient.
|
| STUDY & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
FOR UNITS I & II AND CHAPTERS 1 & 2 |
| (By the conclusion of this section of
KIN 375 students are expected to be able to provide intelligent and
complete answers to the following questions. Information may be gathered
from the text, class notes, and independent library research. Students
are encouraged to work in small groups and consult with instructor on a
regular basis). |
- What is history and why should history (in general) and the
history of physical education and sport be studied? Discuss the
procedures for organizing historical data. How should one study
history?
- Describe and discuss the conditions
which led to the development (flourishment) of Greek culture,
physical education and sport.
- Describe and discuss the
characteristics of Mycenaean sport. What sport events are described
by Homer?
- Discuss the institutionalization of
physical education and sport during the Archaic period of the Greek
civilization. How were those institutions related to the polis
(city-state) concept?
- For what reasons did archaic and
classical Greeks participate in physical education and sport?
- Describe the relationship of the
military to physical education in ancient Greek culture.
- What role did religion play in
ancient Greek sport?
- What was the role of women in sport
in ancient Greece? Were all the city-states the same in this
respect?
- Contrast the Spartan and Athenian
educational systems. How did they differ, and what were the outcomes
of each system?
- How did the Greeks view the body?
How does this position affect us today?
- Were the ancient Greek athletes
amateurs? Where did this idea originate from?
- What according to modern Western
standards, are the positive and negative values which can be
ascribed to ancient Greek athletics? Discuss what modern Westerners
can learn from ancient Greek education, physical education and
sport?
|
- Sample Answer: THE POSITIVE IN
ANCIENT GREEK ATHLETICS
- The love of and joy in
participating in physical activities;
- sport contests took place in
nature, thus nature was cherished and preserved;
- children never fought against
stronger peers and were forbidden to fight without adult
supervision;
- the use of a wide range of sport
activities a fact that contributed to a well balanced and
perfectly shaped body;
e) the love and care of one s body, the responsibility to
society, bravery, wisdom--were all accomplished through physical
education and athletics.
|
| THE NEGATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK
ATHLETICS |
| Education, physical education and
sports were not available to everybody. Only those who were Greek by
blood could participate. In 430 B.C.E. only 20 % of the Athens residents
were also citizens with full rights. Slaves comprised 75% of Athens
population and the remaining 5% were foreigners. |
| WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE GREEKS?
|
| "The Greeks considered physical
development and training an important and absolute dictate of the gods.
Health of body; beauty, perfection and strength of limb; endurance in
competition and combat; a clear, courageous eye; and that confidence
which comes only through facing danger: these were considered by the
Greeks as being no less essential than mental development, shrewdness
and artistic talent. The achieving of a balance between the physical and
intellectual life, and the harmonious development of all natural powers
and talents were the aim of Greek education." |
| Ernst Curtius |
| The development of character was
emphasized over physical prowess. The development of the intellect was
very important and preceded the development of the physical. A strong
and fit body was incomplete and had to be supported by a sharp mind.
|
