Roman Empire -- KIN 375, History of Phys. Ed. & Sport

UNIT # 4: Rome
Historical & Philosophical Bases of Physical Education and Sport

šUnit 4's outline is in part a reproduction and in part a modification and expansion of original lecture notes by Dr. Steve Estes, California State University, Fullerton.
Mechikoff, R., & Estes, S. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education: From the ancient Greeks to the present (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.

UNIT 4 -- The Roman Civilization and their Sports

UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the completion of this unit students will develop knowledge and understanding of:

the similarities and differences between Roman and Greek education and sports
the causes of the demise of the Greeks as an ancient world super power
compare current thinking and philosophies to Stoicism and Epicureanism
the causes for the demise of the Romans as an ancient world super power

The Roman Empire PowerPoint lecture notes are available in Adobe PDF format. To open a .pdf file in your browser you need to have the Adobe Acrobat Reader application installed on your PC.

THE RISE OF ROME AND ROMAN SPORTS

Roman Republic -- 509 B.C. to 146 B.C.

Roman Empire -- 27 B.C. to 476 A.D.

Around 509 BC the Etruscans were overcome by a new force that became known as the Roman Republic. By 146 BC the Greeks became the Romans' latest victims. The Romans became the new super power of the old world. The Roman empire that was established during the rule of Augustus Caesar, 27 BC, lasted over 500 years (until 476 A.D.)

The Greek and Roman sports were very similar in many respects. Why? Because of the strong and long lasting Greek influence of the Roman civilization (For the same reasons that all of Western civilization's were infatuated with the Greeks).

The Greeks were defeated and were no more a political force, but their culture survived 500 years of Roman rule.

What brought about the rise of Rome and the demise of the Greeks?

Roman Aristocracy: The Romans adopted the Greeks' idea of democracy but took that idea several steps forward. Rather than turn every conquered nation or city state's people into slaves, the Romans understood the value of human resourses and human assets and allowed conquered people to continue and own their land as long as they paid taxes. In addition, the Romans made it possible for outsiders to become Roman citizens.

Military Innovations: The Romas introduces new and improved army tactics (short sword, organization, training, discipline) which were superior to the ones used by the Greeks. By organizing large numbers of people in a concentrated effort the Romans were able to overcome the Greeks who could not manage to team up with fellow Greeks to fight back as one unit.

Economics: As a land based power (as opposed to the Greek Thalassocracy ("...a state which ruled over the sea for a certain period of time and was a maritime force." source: Cvete Lazova (THRACIA, 8, pp. 17-22, Academia Litterarum Bulgarica, Serdicae, 1988 -- http://members.tripod.com/~Groznijat/thrac/articles/thracian_thalassocracy.htm -- 2-20-04)

I. Cross-Cultural Analysis

1. Romans did not place a high value on the intellectual and cultural genius like the Greeks did.

Nor did they contribute to the development of philosophical and scientific advancement.
Most Romans were also uncomfortable with the all-around development of man like the Greeks.

2. Romans were focused on the practical and purposeful.

Great civil engineers, many Roman roads are still in use.

3. Like the Greeks, Romans were polytheistic.

Many of the Roman gods were an adaptation of the Greek gods with alternate names.
During the Empire, some Romans rejected the mythology ("The beliefs and practices of the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula from ancient times until the ascendancy of Christianity in the 4th century CE. . Source: Encyclopedia Mythica -- http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/europe/roman/articles.html -- 2-20-40 ) and started to embrace Christianity.

II. Philosophical Orientation

1. Military training in ancient Rome took precedence over intellectual achievement, yet it required an intelligent soldier. "The legions screened applicants for military service and selected only the best physical specimens. Equally important was the selection of men who could read, write, and do some mathematical calculations" (http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr0010.htm -- 2-20-04).

With a relatively spiritless religion, philosopher's were responsible to provide a code of conduct for the people.

2. Romans believed that all other cultures beyond theirs was inferior and filled with barbarians.

III. The Cynics

Cynicism is branch of Socratic thought founded by by Antisthenes (c. 445-365 BCE), a former student of Gorgias (483-378 B.C.). A simple virtuous life, following nature's law, was according to the Cynics necessary and sufficient for attaining happiness. Cynicism may be better described as a way of life than a school of philosophy. Many of the key doctrines of the Cynics were incorporated into Stoicism.

1. They were a group of disciples devoted to the teaching of Socrates.

Believed in the independence of character, and the indifference to circumstance.

2. Like Socrates, the Cynics believed "no harm can come to a good man."

Unlike Socrates the Cynics ignored "virtue is knowledge."

IV. The Stoics (Source: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Similarly to Cynicism, Stoicism too may be better described as a way of life rather than a school of philosophy.

Baltzly, Dirk; "Stoicism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2000 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2000/entries/stoicism/

1. Zeno of Citium in Cyprus (344-262 BC), established his own school of philosophy called stoicism.

Zeno was at first influenced by the Cynics but did not agree with their anarchistic views.
He was influenced by Plato and Aristotle.
The knowledge we have is of specific objects.
Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics did trust the body and senses perception to acquire knowledge.

V. Epicureans (Source: The Radical Academy -- http://radicalacademy.com)

1. This philosophy rejected metaphysical ("...pure rational concepts, independent of any condition of intuition)or religious claims on one's behavior (Kant, 1780)."

Promoted the development of cultural individuals who found happiness through the joys of the mind.
The body is more important in this philosophy than in others that focus on ideas.

VI. Marcus Tullius Cicero (Source: William Harris, Prof. Em. Middlebury College -- www.middlebury.edu/~harris)

1. Was a great Roman orator and philosopher, that was banished from Rome due to his disapproval of the actions of Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus.

Cicero was concerned with ethics and how man can attain the highest moral virtue.
Cicero became a social critic of arena sports because he believed it represented the larger political problems of Rome.
Sport is a mirror image of society. Cicero would have been killed if he criticized government directly, so went after sport instead.

VII. Antiochus IV -- King of Syria (Source: Perspective on the World of Jesus -- with new translations from primary texts; Copyright Š 1999-2003 by Mahlon H. Smith All rights reserved. [http://religion.rutgers.edu/iho/texts1.html]

"Antiochus IV was a Seleucid -- a successor to one of the generals who took over when Alexander the Great died. He was king of Syria between 175 and 164 BC. He was a strong Helleniser and had many victories. He once came into serious conflict with the Jews, as recorded in the apocryphal books of 1 and 2 Maccabees. It would be only reasonable for the Maccabees to liken Daniel's prophecy to themselves (though they do not do so explicitly), just as later Protestants applied it to the Medieval Catholic church. But that does not mean that either theory is a genuinely good scriptural fit. Historically, Antiochus is a poor fulfillment of the prophecy." (Reproduced from http://www.whyprophets.com/prophets/antiocus.htm)

VIII. Sports and Physical Education

1. Roman Gladiatorial Games -- massive spectacles of entertainment and carnage. (Source: http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/gladiatr/)

It was not always like this in the early years, it was more enjoyable by the citizens but not to the extent of the Greeks.
Romans enjoyed ball games, and the thermae was very popular too.
Mild exercise, not intense competition, appealed to the Romans.

2. Romans would pay homage to their gods by holding certain physical activities in their presence.

Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and wrestling were all done to exhibit their skills to the gods.

IX. Military Training

1. The Roman military was paramount in importance to both social and political contexts of Roman life.

The training of youth had one purpose, make them obedient, disciplined and ready for war.
War was the prestigious profession of Rome.

X. Claudius Galen

1. Studied medicine at the age of seventeen and became knowledgeable in the healing arts, and the use of drugs.

reputation to treat and heal gladiators
he was the first to integrate medicine with biomechanics into the science of exercise

2. He was opposed to the professional athlete.

he believed in "moderation of all things"
stressed the development of the body in a harmonious way

XI. Greek Athletics

1. The athleticism of the Greeks was not valued militarily by the Romans.

The Roman's approach demanded severe and harsh training programs that would produce warriors.
The Greek athletics appealed only to the leisure and literate class

XII. Women in Sports

1. The participation by women in sport during this time was for entertainment value only and not taken seriously (There is some "questionable evidence" of Female Gladiators.

Swimming, dancing, and tossing balls back and forth were activities women were involved in; women did go to the very popular Roman baths

XIII. Games and Spectacles

1. The government introduced official sporting events, where businesses would be closed and admission would be free.

Rome became a nation of spectators and not participants.

The Coliseum became a human torture chamber and a slaughter house to criminals, Christians and political prisoners.

2. The spectacles took place on a frequent basis to keep the masses entertained, because it was believed that a bored group of citizens would revolt against the empire.

3. The Circus Maximus was the premier hippodrome in the Roman Empire.

This is where chariot races took place and the more popular gladiator combats.

4. The Coliseum, the biggest arena of its kind, held 90,000 spectators.

The typical agenda consisted of animal fights first, then men and women would be thrown to these animals, and the most popular event was lastly the gladiator fights.

The gladiators were mostly criminals and slaves that were trained to fight to please the crowed utilitarian approach of Romans.

Also mass combats were held which involved many men killing each other. Nineteen thousand slaves sent to death in ships by Emperor Claudius Nero Germanicus in 52 A.D. Most drowned, ships were far away, people couldn't see, got bored and left.

5. Pompeii was buried during the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D.

Remains of the best preserved gladiatorial training school was found under the ash. Gladiators were heroes to kids, population (pre-Arnold Schwarzenegger).

6. The growth of Christianity had a big impact on sport.

Roman sport was condemned by Christians who were more often than not the victims of the Roman's bloody spectacles.
The Greeks athletic festivals and carnage that was associated with the Romans eventually came to an end.
However, the Christian Empire did adopt the popular chariot racing from the Romans.

Roman History Link to article about the Punic Wars by Richard Hooker.

Roman History Link to article about the Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires by Richard Hooker.

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