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| The Theoretical and Professional Development of American Physical Education |
| Chapter 9 Science, Medicine, and the Concept of Health: The Theoretical and Professional Development of Physical Education: 1885-1930 |
| Chapter Outline |
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ıChapter 9's outline is in part a reproduction and in part a modification and expansion of
original lecture notes by Dr. Steve Estes, California State University, Fullerton. Mechikoff, R., & Estes, S. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education: From the ancient Greeks to the present (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. |
| I. General Events |
| I. Nineteenth Century Concept of Health |
| Why is the 19th century health status of importance to Physical Education? |
| Health Promotion and Wellness was a major component in 19th century Physical Education Programs - Health and Fitness is a fashionable and high profile component in the P.E. programs of the 1990's. |
| Health was a major concern of Americans and Europeans alike. |
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| Why was health of such concern to Americans? |
| Routine occurrence of disease (e.g., influenza outbreak in 1917 -- It is estimated that between 25 and 40 million people died from the the influenza outbreak that began in 1918, swept across America in a week and around the world in three months. In all, between 500,000 and 700,000 Americans --civilians and soldiers-- died from the influenza, more than were lost in World War I, II, and the Korean and Viet Nam wars combined. Source: http://www.iowabiotech.com/biohistory.htm?pp=1 retrieved: 2/25/04) |
| American cities were constantly ravaged by cholera, typhus, typhoid, scarlet fever, influenza, diphtheria, smallpox, measles, whooping cough, and T.B. consumption were quite common. |
| What was the state of medical knowledge during 19th century? |
| Little was known, no systematic research and data were available, new discoveries and advances were not communicated effectively |
| Health was conceptualized as a combination of balanced constitution (body) and temperament (mind and spirit--dualistic view) |
| 1. Humoral medicine as a treatment to cure disease/restore health--Bleeding (Geo. Washington); Leeching, arsenic, strychnine, mercury. |
| 2. Health was also a matter of moral character--characteristics of diligence, integrity, honesty, hard work etc. were demonstrable traits that mind and spirit operated in harmony. |
| Foundation of health--"mens sana en corpre sano" - Healthy mind in a healthy body. |
| II. Status of Physicians in 19th century |
| Why weren't physicians recognized as exclusive guardians of health? |
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(1) licensure, (2) right of education (3) protective legislation. |
| What was the impact of the election of President Andrew Jackson in 1828? |
| a. Ran on the platform of the "common man" which: |
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| III. Health Reform |
| Popular interest in health and periodic scientific discoveries |
| a. Gave rise to alternative (irregular) medical theories and treatments. |
| b. As a result, numerous health and hygiene reforms took place |
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| Medical School education? Standards? Admission Requirements? |
| IV. Preeminence of Biological Science |
| Biology has evolved in this era and was a premier science of the period. |
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| V. Social and Institutional Change in 19th century America |
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The 19th Century was a period of radical change
a. all aspects of American society were in flux |
| Social change led to emergence of a middle class, bureaucratic society based on (1) specialization and (2) expertise |
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Physical Education experienced this change. P.E. sought to reflect the general, social
and institutional ideas/beliefs of this era reflect mainstream thinking As a result, specialists and organizations were developed to determine the: |
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(1) needs and (2) direction of the emerging profession of P.E. |
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| VI. Physical Education |
| 1. Nov. 27, 1885. Forty-nine people attended a meeting at the invitation of W. G. Anderson, M.D. |
| 2. All 49 people had a common interest in P.E. |
| 3. Important issue/topic of discussion was Battle of the Systems. Advantages/disadvantages between German (Turner) Gymnastics and Swedish gymnastics. |
| 4. Growth of P.E. by 1885 was reflected by the fact that: |
| These early PE programs used |
| (1) German system, (2) Swedish system or (3) a combination of both. |
| Developed specific exercises that were not found in either the German or Swedish programs Calisthenics developed by Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) and Dio Lewis (1823-1886). Both Beecher and Lewis devoted their efforts to promote health and exercise for women. |
| Beecher's system of Calisthenics |
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| Composition of the people who attended the 11-27-1885 meeting: twenty-five were M.D.s |
| Named this organization that emerged from the meeting "American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education" (AAAPE) changed in 1903 to "American Physical Education Assoc." (APEA) |
| VII. Theoretical Basis of American P.E. |
| I. With the new professional organization formed, AAAPE, the development of a theoretical basis for P.E. of the greatest importance. See last page for Beacher and theory. |
| Theory - tested and untested assumptions that were to be used in order to explain physical activity. |
| A. Many ideas and positions emerged relative to the proper theoretical basis |
| B. Cultural values, especially those of the middle class played an important part in influencing the theory base. Still does. |
| 1. Physical Educators paid attention to the ideological and social attitudes that defined the nature of health, hygiene, character development, and improvement of society. |
| 2. Physical education was equally influenced by the 19th Century social reform movements that connected "Physical and moral perfection" |
| 3. A strong social reformist attitude was one of the major positions of physical education in the late 19th century. Liked the philosophy of idealism. Why? Develop the "SELF" PE was used to affect the health, moral and intellectual development of the student ("through the physical"). |
| II. Gradually the theoretical basis for P.E. began to emerge |
| A. The belief that Physical Education was good for both the individual and the community was a major component of Physical Education's Theory base. |
| III. Three (3) Distinct Periods in the Development of Theory |
| 1. 1885-1900 was characterized by 19th-century beliefs that viewed health as a balance or harmony between (1) mind, (2) body, and (3) spirit. |
| a. Science was the provider of truth and tools of science (experimentation - observation - measurement) were symbols of learned authority. The new profession of PE reflected these beliefs and operations. |
| 2. 1900 - 1917 - Major debates relative to what should be the appropriate methods and goals of PE. |
| 3. 1917 - 1930 - Accepted and incorporated the psychological and behavioristic principles as a major part of the Theoretical Foundation of PE. |
| a. Used popular beliefs about the virtues of exercise and in so doing, gained legitimacy in the eyes of the public. |
| 4. The popularity and emergence of the profession of Physical Education was helped by the athletic craze that swept the country between 1870-1900. |
| 5. Most Americans began to question traditional beliefs during this period. However, the belief that exercise and the corresponding enhancement of health was necessary to insure total wellness and equilibrium of the whole person remained strong. |
| Has this belief position remained the same today? |
| CATHERINE BEECHER 1800 - 1878 |
| System of Calisthenics for women structured around 26 lessons in physiology and 2 courses in calisthenics. |
| A. Designed two varieties, one for schools, one for exercise halls |
| B. "Light exercises" sometimes used light weights |
| C. Goal = develop (1) beautiful and strong bodies, (2) cure deformities Along with Dio Lewis, these two pioneers in physical education championed the rights of women and pressed for the "Vote." |
| Theoretical Basis of Physical Education |
| A. Interest in health, hygiene, and exercise experienced uneven growth between 1830 - 1860/prior to civil war. |
| B. Members of AAAPE (1885 meeting) liked the fact that the "newness" and flexibility of the field accommodated many different ideas, Swedish system, German system, Sargent System, Hitchcock, etc. |
| 1. Very difficult under these circumstances to agree on what P.E. was--Theory of P.E. |
| *Theory - tested and untested assumptions that P.E. used to explain activities. Early PE Theory was a mixture of opinions and facts derived from a variety of sources; medicine, science, personal opinion, untested beliefs, etc. --as far as embracing the scientific method and attendance utilization of theories, PE was WEAK! |
| Cultural values of middle class also influenced P.E. P.E. was deeply influenced by 19th century social reform movements that connected physical and moral perfection! |
| A strong social reformist attitude was one of the strong points of 19th-century P.E. professionals. |
| Physical Educators believed they could take a boy/girl and make them into better people. Idealism. |
| U.S. Commissioner of Education, William T. Harris: "The new P.E. needed to be much broader in scope than merely training the body and providing instruction in personal hygiene. Started a debate that still exists. What is the Theoretical basis of P.E.? What is it that we believe and what is it we do? Define P.E. |
| The belief that P.E. was good for both the individual and the community was a major component of physical education's theory base. This "belief" has yet to be adequately proven. "A priori" knowledge. |
| For a large number of physical educators, then and now, this conviction is the entire justification for P.E. !! No scientific basis for this belief. |
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On-line References with links on this webpage:
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| Copyright© 1996-2004, Daniel Frankl, Ph.D. |
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Page updated: Feb. 26, 2004