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| Chapter 12: Changing Concepts of the Body: Sport and Play in Nineteenth-Century America |
| Chapter Outline |
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ıChapter 12's outline is in part a reproduction and in part a modification and expansion of
original lecture notes by Dr. Steve Estes, California State University, Fullerton. Mechikoff, R., & Estes, S. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education: From the ancient Greeks to the present (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. |
| I. A Changing America |
| A. 19th century America |
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1. a time of rapid change 2. changes were a product of the awareness of the material aspects of life 3. perspectives of changes: demographic, technological, modernization, and philosophical |
| B. America a big "melting pot" |
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1. variety of peoples and cultures live here 2. each group holds unique perspectives 3. a common thread was that the material world was real and important in their lives |
| C. Material world emphasis |
| 1. manifested by the use of technology to make life better 2. movement from country to city 3. use of rationality to learn to live better 4. use of philosophy to understand world |
| D. Four Perspectives of the changes |
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1. urbanization 2. industrialization 3. modernization theory 4. how these changes coincided with philosophical changes |
| E. Technological Revolution |
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1. telegraph lines and railroads 2. steamboats and journals 3. caused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city oriented lifestyle 4. increased the level of literacy |
| II. Early Technological Innovations and Their Impact of Sport |
| A. Technological changes that made sport possible |
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1. mass production produced cheap athletic equipment 2. sewing machine produced more uniforms 3. vulcanized rubber produced rubber balls for golf and tennis 4. electrification produced more leisure time |
| B. Interventions impact on sports |
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1. cameras to capture sporting events 2. telephone and typewriter to communicate about sporting events 3. the phonograph and the automobile |
| C. Causes for the rise of organized sport |
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1. industrialization 2. urban movement 3. transformation in communication, transportation, and agriculture |
| III. 19th Century American Philosophy: Transcendentalism and Pragmatism |
| A. Beginning of Transcendentalism |
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1. created by the New England Transcendentalists a. influential group of writers, critics, philosophers, theologians, and social reformers 2. influenced by the spirit of European romantics 3. rejected narrow rationalism, pietism, and conservatism 4. a philosophy that was eclectic, individualistic, and relevant to life |
| B. Basic beliefs of Transcendentalists |
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1. godlike nature of the human spirit 2. authority of the individual 3. humans are a natural part of the universe 4. mind and body are as one 5. creativity more important than theory 6. action more important than contemplation |
| C. Impact of Transcendentalists values |
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1. emphasis on action
a. produced an awareness of the importance of physicality 2. made many sports and physical education necessary and important |
| IV. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 - 1882) |
| A. Background information |
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1. American philosopher, writer, and poet 2. first of the American transcendentalists 3. most influential of the transcendentalist group |
| B. Emerson's impact on Transcendentalism |
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1. studied the nature of self, the universe, the mind, and nature 2. followers saw themselves as connected physically and mentally with both nature and the city 3. lead Americans away from the dualistic philosophy of the Puritans |
| V. Henry David Thoreau (1817 - 1862) |
| A. Introduction |
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1. best known transcendentalist 2. spent hours trying to understand his relationship to his fellow man |
| B. Thoreau's view of nature |
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1. "absolute freedom and wildness" 2. superior to anything humans could produce 3. described in his famous work Walden, or Life in the Woods |
| C. American Individualism |
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1. described Thoreau's essay "Civil Disobedience" a. most influential of his works b. used as a guide for peaceful revolution 2. each person has the right and a moral obligation to protect his or her individuality with respect to the state |
| VI. Pragmatism |
| A. An American philosophy |
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1. emerged in the late 19th century 2. developed by a group of intellectuals 3. a response to changes that occurred earlier in the 19th century |
| B. Origins of Pragmatism |
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1. a product of the demographic, technological, and philosophical
changes 2. a product of Darwinism a. Darwin stated that the biological systems are the response to some change in the environment b. he implies that the moving human body can be seen as a response to a changing environment |
| VII. The Influence of Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882) |
| A. Darwin's impact |
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1. powerful effect on science and philosophy 2. through two works Origin of the Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871) 3. only after the Origin of the Species work did scientists begin to examine our physical selves as a consequence of our environment |
| B. Darwin's Theories |
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1. all living things have developed from a few extremely simple forms 2. contradicted the popular explanation for the origin of each species 3. his explanation of the origin of the species was applied to philosophy, science, and biology 4. explanation for the genesis of humans which contradicted the Bible 5. ability to think is a product of our biology a. scientific explanation for this was world shattering and is still in debate today b. impact similar to the contemporary debate between "creationists" and "evolutionists" |
| C. Theory of evolution |
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1. supported the use of our senses and our power to reason to
understand the material world 2. promoted the idea that our environment is the cause of the changes we experience |
| D. Influence on physical education |
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1. physical education benefited from Darwin's theories 2. physical education is an attempt to control students' environment, promote skill acquisition and physical, social, and spiritual, and psychological growth 3. Physical education would improve the species, make us stronger, better able to survive and prosper in a changing environment |
| VIII. The Pragmatists |
| A. "The Metaphysical Club" |
| 1. group of intellectuals that discussed Darwin's Origin of the Species 2. Charles Pierce and William James were most famous members 3. produced the philosophy of "pragmatism" |
| VIIII. Charles Sanders Pierce (1839 - 1914) |
| A. Beliefs of the Founder of Pragmatism |
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1. it is rational to accept some things as true even if we are not
absolutely certain of their truth 2. we come to know ideas by using our senses 3. monism--physical world and the ideal world is unified 4. human beings create ideas, best way to do this is to use the scientific method |
| B. Significance to physical education |
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1. the development of pragmatism by Peirce a. which connects the human body with the mind, no division of the two b. consequently, both are of equal importance in the educational hierarchy |
| X. William James (1842 - 1910) |
| A. Background Information |
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1. well known scientist of the Metaphysical Club 2. best known for shifting psychology from the study of consciousness to the study of behavior |
| B. James' contributions to Pragmatism and education |
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1. truth is relative to the individual 2. previous philosophers debated questions that were unanswerable 3. use philosophy to improve our daily lives 4. a monist that tried to unite the ideas of mind and body into an integrated whole 5. his philosophy influenced educators of the time and affected ideas of sport and physical education relative to goals and outcomes |
| XI. Sport in the 19th Century |
| A. Causes for the rise of sport in America |
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1. culture became urban and technical 2. American adults became fond of participating in recreational activities during their spare time 3. the cultural revolution caused sport to change along with everything else |
| XII. Justifying Sport in the 19th Century |
| A. Justification for sport participation |
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1. emerged through religion a. attitudes towards religion changed just as did attitudes towards sport b. justification emerged because of the development of "muscular Christianity" 2. desirable characteristics such as competitiveness 3. health issues associated with living in the city 4. sport viewed as a "man builder" 5. in the late 19th century changed attitudes toward participation from views of the early part of the century |
| XIII. Religion as an Argument for Sport |
| A. "Muscular Christianity" |
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1. an attitude toward physicality that developed in the early 1800s in
England 2. had a positive effect on the popularity of sport in America 3. stated that there is something innately good and godly about brute strength and power 4. an effort to overcome physical weakness could be viewed as an effort to be Christian, moral, and good a. sport activities were viewed as an effort to be a good Christian 5. associated godliness with manliness-sport developed "manly" qualities |
| B. Influence of "Muscular Christianity" |
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1. spread through educational institutions 2. influenced Baron de Coubertin, founder of the Olympic Games 3. has been one of the most significant factors in the development of sport and fitness activities |
| XIV. Other Arguments That Justified Sport Participation |
| A. Justifications |
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1. significance of the physical nature of the individual 2. importance of being competitive 3. sport used as a tool to teach competitiveness 4. the necessary characteristic of "manliness" 5. physicality associated with sports was desirable 6. all of these combated against Puritanism, an anti-play attitude |
| XV. Sport Develops in the 19th Century |
| A. Early 1800s beginning of sport |
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1. marked playful recreation toward games and less competitive activities 2. "sport" could be distinguished from the activity of games and play 3. now sport has many different characteristics |
| B. Modernization Theory |
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1. an organizational scheme used to explain how a culture changes
from a set of "premodern" characteristics to "modern" characteristics 2. can be used to explain how play and games evolved into sport 3. sport tends to change from a set of premodern sporting characteristics to a set of modern sports characteristics 4. sport may have contributed to the transition made by Americans from traditional practices to more "modern" ways 5. these changes from premodern to modern are evident in many different sporting situations 6. some examples of modernization are the development of horse and harness racing and baseball |
| XVI. Sport and Play in 19th Century America |
| A. Development of sports |
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1. some of the sports we enjoy in the 20th century were developed in
the 19th century 2. development of certain sports created sporting institutions which shaped the organization of all subsequent sports 3. these sports are: horse and harness racing, baseball, rowing, boxing, and track and field |
| XVII. Horse and Harness Racing |
| A. Horse Racing |
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1. one of the most popular American pastimes in the 19th century 2. all social classes were spectators 3. symbolized materialism, individualism, and competitiveness 4. more "game" than "sport" because contests were unorganized and informal 5. wagering on the contests was common 6. famous race between Eclipse and Henry a. one of the first major sporting events in America 7. attracted newspaper coverage 8. jockey clubs were formed 9. rules were formed to govern the sport 10. these changes are characteristic of modern sport |
| B. Harness racing |
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1. became popular in the late 1830s 2. leading American spectator sport by the early 1850s 3. National Trotting Association founded in 1870 symbolized the sports transition from a premodern sport to a modern sport 4. a pattern developed that was simulated in many other sports |
| XVIII. Ball games: Cricket, Baseball, and Football |
| A. Ball games |
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1. captured the hearts of Americans in early to mid 1800s 2. not easily accepted because Americans enjoyed individual sports 3. also considered to be for children and not "manly" 4. quality of play was not attractive |
| XVIIII. Cricket |
| A. Unpopular in America |
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1. an English game that was more formalized, competitive, and
organized than what Americans were used to 2. too hard for Americans to play 3. associated with gambling which was frowned upon 4. no "manly" virtues |
| B. Baseball became dominant over cricket |
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1. around 1855 2. much easier and faster game than cricket 3. promoted healthful activities and over time, developed into "manly sport" contributed to the popularity of baseball 4. from these claims came the conclusion that ball playing was one way of demonstrating manhood |
| XX. Baseball |
| A. Origin of baseball |
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1. evolved from games of rounders and town ball 2. played as early as 1734 at Harvard 3. Knickerbocker Base Ball Club, most popular of clubs a. Alexander Cartwright, a member, developed rules that we use today |
| B. Growth and Competition |
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1. caused a need for consistent rules for the game 2. 1858 National Association for Base Ball Players was formed a. governed baseball for 13 years 3. 1871, National Association of Professional Base Ball Players was formed a. represented a variety of changes in sport and baseball in America b. men would play baseball for money c. Americans no longer thought sport was reserved for children |
| C. Influence of baseball on sport |
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1. baseball emerged as a professional sport a. justified sport participation 2. sport was viewed as a means to develop character, exercise discipline, self- control, and teamwork 3. sport was a valuable educational tool for teachers and instilled character and other virtues that were equated with "manhood" |
| XXI. Football |
| A. Origin's of American football |
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1. before first college game men have made a contest of moving an
object between two goals by brute force 2. derived from soccer and rugby 3. characterized by the violent nature of the sport 4. London Football Association a. established rules and format 5. 1873 Intercollegiate Association for Football was formed 6. Walter Camp the "father" of American football |
| B. American's attitude |
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1. strong feelings about the rules 2. they have to have referees to enforce the rules 3. valued the outcome of the game more than how the game is played 4. applauded acts that served to win the game a. tripping, hacking, and pushing opponents 5. do anything to win the game a. paid professional coaches emerged in the beginning of the 20th century because of this desire to win |
| XXII. "Amateur" Sports |
| A. Amateurism |
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1. movement developed in the 1860s and 1870s 2. "amateur" - one who competes for the love of the sport and receives no money 3. concept is no longer accepted as a valid distinction between athletes 4. concept has dominated many American sports |
| XXIII. Rowing |
| A. Origin's of Rowing |
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1. one of the most popular sports in early to mid 1800s 2. conducted by working class "watermen" 3. rowers would race for bets 4. young upper class men participated for social diversion 5. 1830s and 1840s clubs were formed |
| B. Rowing Clubs |
| 1. rules against competing for money 2. 1856 Undine Barge Club 3. members were from the upper class, they did not want to be defeated by the lower class rowers who engaged in gambling on the outcome of a race 4. 1870 over 200 clubs |
| C. National Amateur Regatta |
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1. event in 1872 put on by the Schuylkill Navy Rowing Association 2. promoted amateurs and excluded non-amateurs 3. combined 27 clubs to form the National Association of Amateur Oarsmen (NAAO) a. separated amateurs from professional b. amateurism separated athletes by social class |
| D. A "modern" sport |
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1. by 1870 rowing was modernized 2. had a higher level of modern structure than any other sport in America |
| XXIV. Track and Field |
| A. Origins |
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1. stimulated by the Caledonian Games 2. first games in 1853 3. became highly organized and popular 4. 1868 New York Athletic Club (NYAC) was formed 5. 1868 NYAC sponsored its first indoor meet |
| B. Clubs |
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1. by 1879 there were 100 clubs in New York 2. promoted athletics and amateurism 3. 1879 National Association of Amateur Athletes of America (NAAAA) was established 4. 1888 Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) was formed a. by 1890 AAU had control of all amateur competition |
| Copyright© 1996-2002, Daniel Frankl, Ph.D. |
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Page updated: April 01, 2002