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| Chapter 10: Toward the Reform of Physical Education: 1930-1939 |
| Chapter Outline |
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ıChapter 10's outline is in part a reproduction and in part a modification and expansion of
original lecture notes by Dr. Steve Estes, California State University, Fullerton. Mechikoff, R., & Estes, S. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education: From the ancient Greeks to the present (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. |
| I. Significant reform in physical education in the twentieth century. |
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A. Social development objectives B. Adoption of sports by physical education C. The development of play theory |
| II. Early physical educators focused on health |
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A. Backgrounds were doctors and educators B. Course work in hygiene, physiology, and instruction in fitness activities. C. Activities included gymnastics and calisthenics |
| III. Twentieth-century American education underwent reform |
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A. Should include physical education B. Social development objectives C. Transformation of physical education began with the "athletics are educational" movement (1906-1916) D. Concluded with the age of "sports for all" (1917-1939) E. Traditional health and fitness objectives of physical education were subjugated to the social development objectives |
| F. Why change in the focus and scope of physical education? |
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1. philosophical re-orientation by members of the profession or 2. result of external forces over which physical educators had little or no control |
| G. Primarily external forces |
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1. physical educators capitalized on high interest in sports 2. reformed philosophy in order to accommodate sports into the curriculum 3. result of a determined effort by the American Physical Education Association 4. put athletics into education and education into athletics |
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H. Problem: serious athletic competition and intramural sports challenged gymnastics
and calisthenics. 1. 1930 almost all instructional activities devoted to sports and intramural programs. |
| IV. Before 1906 physical education administered by faculty |
| A. Athletics governed by athletic associations |
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1. controlled by students and alumni 2. no national governing body to oversee athletics 3. abuses caused faculty intervention in both high school and university athletics |
| B. High school: control achieved by merging athletics and physical education into a single entity |
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1. athletic directors and coaches hired 2. not necessarily physical educators hired 3. teaching done by coaches 4. shift away from health focus 5. teachers trained by educators, not health experts |
| V. Most physical educators were women |
| A. Men preferred coaching |
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1. 1900-1920 no coursework offered in coaching 2. 1919 George Huff developed the first degree program in coaching at the University of Illinois |
| VI. Recreation was a new area of study |
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A. Promoted the adoption of directed play B. Alternative to competitive sport C. Did not take hold |
| VII. Athletics and physical education become the same thing |
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A. Highly organized, well-established, and popular varsity athletic competition
dominates physical education B. 1906-1916 college presidents assumed responsibility for intercollegiate and interscholastic athletic programs C. 1917-1939 "Sports for All" |
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1. Final stage in the transformation of physical education 2. Organizations charged with increasing sports participation |
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| VIII. Most states had passed legislation mandating physical education be taught in the schools |
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A. Physical education departments established B. No physical education professors C. Coaches become the physical educators |
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1. Loss of academic standards occurs 2. 1929 survey |
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D. 1929 Carnegie Foundation report on athletics 1. Physical education used to turn colleges and universities into giant athletic agencies |
| IX. Qualified physical educators were concerned with low standards |
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Jesse Feiring Williams fights for quality His philosophical arguments prevail, but no substantive change in programming takes place In late 20th century coaches and physical educators are still confused about their mission in education |
| X. Development of Play Theory in Physical Education: 1900-1915 |
| A. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) |
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1. An advocate of Darwin 2. Play could be used to expend excess energy |
| B. Karl Groos |
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1. Humans played as preparation for life through imitating others 2. Play behavior was instinctual |
| C. G. Stanley Hall |
| 1. "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" |
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a. childhood a rehearsal for the evolutionary process b. play a fundamental form of the history of the human species |
| D. Luther Halsey Gulick (1865-1918) |
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1. Philosophy of Play 2. Emphasized the benefits of play for the development of both the private and social individual |
| E. John Dewey (1859-1952) |
| 1. Education was necessary for democratic citizenship |
| XI. Advocates and Adversaries: The Promotion of Play |
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A. 1887 Jay Seaver speaks against the use of military drill in physical education
programs 1. Lack of play not beneficial to the student |
| B. 1889 Edward Hartwell argued for the educational superiority of gymnastics |
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1. The goal of sporting activities was one of recreation 2. Goal of gymnastics was discipline, training for pleasure, health, and skill |
| XII. Play and Popular Culture |
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A. 1886 sandgardens built in Boston B. 1889 the Charlesbank Outdoor Gymnasium opened in Boston C. 1889 New York City opened school playgrounds D. 1903 Chicago opened the South Park Playgrounds E. 1903 Public School Athletic League in New York City F. 1906 the Playground Association of America founded |
| XIII. Play versus Gymnastics |
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A. 1900-1915 Physical education professionals advocate gymnastics exercise, not play B. William Skarstrom gymnastics for good posture and development C. Still, play and sport dominate D. Clark Hetherington, Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis lead E. Play became the dominant method of physical education by 1915 |
| 1. The spirit of sportsmanship emphasized |
| XIV. Play: In Physical Education 1900-1915 |
| A. Team games |
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1. Henry Curtis: team game substitutes individual goals for team goals 2. Group consciousness, loyalty, and leadership 3. Team games were the highest form of play |
| B. Luther Gulick |
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| XV. Summary of arguments of the benefits of play |
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A. Developed health and vigor B. Character 1. loyalty, sportsmanship, friendliness, honesty, and leadership |
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C. Democracy through group cooperation D. Moral and ethical values E. Educational because it is "instinctive" |
| XVI. The Paradigmatic Basis of the New Physical Education: 1915-1930 |
| A. Clark Hetherington |
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Divided physical education into four separate areas
a. organic b. psychomotor c. character d. intellect |
| The five objectives of physical education |
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a. large-muscle or physical training activities (cardiovascular fitness) b. development of social adjustment skills c. developing latent powers and capacities through repeated positive responses to specific stimuli d. development of character e. improve thinking |
| XVII. Promotion of Physical Education |
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A. Hetherington championed the educational and socially oriented objectives
of physical education over the health objectives B. These arguments used to justify physical education |
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1. physical education required special faculties and leadership 2. only vehicle to condition self-directed health habits 3. exercise was necessary for adult health maintenance |
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C. Play was very "serious" business 1. Gymnastics had only health benefits |
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D. Hetherington successfully argued that physical education is an essential
component of education. 1. Almost all physical educators eventually embrace play, games, dance, and sport as the primary mode |
| XVIII. Physical Education Literature in the Early Twentieth Century |
| A. 1927 Thomas Wood, Rosalind Cassidy |
| 1. Physical Education: A Program of Naturalized Activities of Education Toward Citizenship 2. Becomes a leading text in physical education |
| XIX. Science and the Quantification of Physical Education |
| A. Science of teaching, or pedagogy develops |
| 1. Intelligence "scale" devised by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon 2. Led to the general conception of scale indexing in all disciplines 3. The measurement of ability becomes a focus on physical education research |
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a. cardiac function b. strength c. motor ability d. physical efficiency e. California Decathlon Test (1918) |
| XX. The Relationship Between Physical Ability and Mental Ability |
| A. Physical ability is correlated to mental ability |
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1. Are athletes "dumb jocks?" 2. No significant correlation was found between mental ability and physical ability |
| XXI. Physical Fitness Assessment |
| A. Purpose: to create a measurement tool to classify students |
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1. according to ability 2. predict achievement 3. Test and Measurement Programs in the Redirection of Physical Education, by Rogers |
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a. Strength Index represented by a single numerical value b. used score to create an Athletic Index c. determined health and progress |
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Strength Index divided by 10 plus Physical Fitness Index plus Intelligence Quotient equals The Athletic Index |
| 4. Rogers' research revealed a negative correlation between mental and physical ability |
| Copyright© 1996-2002, Daniel Frankl, Ph.D. |
questions and/or comments;
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Page updated: April 01, 2002