Compare and contrast Ling's Swedish gymnastics with Jahn's German gymnastics. Which was the better system to promote physical education?

Answer to Essay #1 by Lynnae S. -- Jahn used the believes of Guts Muths as the basis for his physical education studies. Health and intelligence were the prerequisites of moral fitness, and reason and strength were united in his educational ideals. Jahn’s gymnastics were grounded in the pursuit of national unity and freedom from French rule. As for Ling, his foundations of physical exercise were based on the science of the day. Four concepts -- aesthetic, military, pedagogical, and medical aspects of exercise linked each other in order to unify the relationship of mind, body and duty to Sweden. Ling and Jahn’s philosophies of gymnastics on the basis of difficulty and popularity. Ling believed that German gymnastics were too complicated. Ling developed apparatuses that would revolve around specific exercises. Unlike the equipment used by Jahn, Ling’s equipment did not require complex movements. Jahn focused on different sequences of movements, which involved distinct movements of the head, trunk, arms, and legs. Ling focused on body movement and body position when executing movements.

Instructor: Which was the better system to promote physical education? Explain your view.

Answer to Essay #1 by AnnMarie H. -- Ling's Swedish gymnastic was establish for the grounding physical education into a medical and scientific aspects of exercise. He believed in not only exercising the body but also exercising the mind. In addition, he held that physical education is based on the laws of human systems and were influenced not only by the mind but also by the body. Ling wanted exercise to result in a demonstrated effect in which he concentrated on the body position as opposed to movement sequences. His system is base on the science in which he incorporated aesthetic, military, pedagogical and medical aspects of exercise. In comparison to Ling's approach, Jahn's German gymnastics was based on a militaristic philosophy. Jahn's system was grounded on the idea of purifying the youth of Germany. Jahn's physical education studies were based on the work of GutsMuths who was educator and establisher of a systematic physical exercise at the German school system. Jahn's system was a better measure that promote physical education, it was based solely on eliminating the oppressor.

Instructor: Is it your view that Jahn's is the better system to promote physical education because it "was based solely on eliminating the oppressor?" Can you think of any other positive features in the German system of gymnastics?

Instructor: Pretty good and well beyond a comparison of the two gymnastics systems.

How did Friedrich Jahn use gymnastics programs of the Turners to further German nationalism and what was the initial impact of the Turners on the development of physical education in America?

Answer to Essay #2 by Gilbert G. -- Friedrich Jahn worked hard to instill a sense of national pride in his gymnasts. Jahn applied GutMuths’ beliefs to his own work, which would become ultimately, the pursuit of national unity for all of Germany and freedom from French rule. Jahn blamed the loss of German national pride on the cultural influences of the French. The gymnastics program that Jahn established helped to restore German nationalism. During the wars of liberation against France, Jahn and a group of his gymnasts joined the Lutzow Free Corps, which fought as a unit throughout the war. After returning from war and feeling confident that France had been defeated, the Turners then developed a sense of pride and Jahn was their renowned hero. Soon after, Prussia found freedom from French rule and developed a fondness for gymnastics. Gymnastics was then apart of all college and school curriculums. Jahn refused to acknowledge the possibility that the army or the schools had any part in the development of German youth. Instead, 'his gymnastic grounds were to constitute a world apart, a nursery of Germanism, inspired by his spirit alone.'

In 1819, there was plenty of tension between liberal groups and political leaders. During the same year a group of decrees where developed in response to a murder of a writer that wrote critically about gymnastics. The decrees allowed authorities to investigate universities and impose political censorship throughout the German states, soon after, gymnastics was banned from Germany. On July 13, 1819, Jahn was arrested on suspicion of secret, treasonable connections and sent to Spandau fortress. During the time of his imprisonment, three of Jahn’s followers headed to the United States as the groundbreaking teachers of physical education and brought all of their expertise in the field of gymnastics.

Answer to Essay #2 by Lynnae S. -- Jahn worked hard to instill national pride in his gymnasts. The Gymnastic Association was set up in an effort to spread the program throughout Prussia, the program also gained support of the School Inspector Wilhelm Schroder, who called publicly for schools to include gymnastics as part of the curricula. In an effort to further nationalism the gymnast joined the Lutzow Free Corps, which fought as a unit throughout the war. Upon returning the gymnast had acquired a sense of nationalistic pride, with Jahn being their hero. The Turners developed a new found cause after the liberation ended, which lead to a new found cause. With the Turners themselves being the root of this new found cause, the unity of the Germanies fighting anyone who stood in their path, including fellow country men. The initial impact of the Turners on the development of physical education in America occurred with the passing of a law in Ohio in 1892 requiring that physical education be taught in the state’s larger schools.

Answer to Essay #2 by Lisa M. -- Jahn and his Turners brought social changes to the German states. Their goal was to unify the states. They felt that national pride had been lost due to French influences. The gymnastics program was to keep the citizens ready physically and mentally to defend their nation. Three Turners are responsible for bringing modern physical education to America:

How did the work of Charles Darwin and the discoveries in the medical sciences influence the field of physical education and contributed to the evolution of the terms "kinesiology" and "exercise science?"

Answer to Essay #3 by Lynnae S. -- Disease and illness were very prevalent in the nineteenth century and physicians found themselves at a loss when attempting to restore health. In a search for alternative methods to restore health people began to look towards other medical treatments. Thomsonianism was one alternative, which told people they could be their own doctors. Biology and the development of cell theory in relation to Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution was another alternative. The theory of evolution was combined with physiological assumptions about the relationship between mind and body. Physical stature was symbolic of mental and moral improvement. Post Darwinism though emphasized inheritance and health as the mechanisms of social progress. With consistent changes in the academic arena in the university setting there were constant changes in what the name of the major should emphasize to best represent all areas of study.

Instructor: What "areas of study" best represent the "major" and how were those sub-disciplines affected by the discoveries in the medical sciences?

Before you make up your mind and decide whether you agree or disagree with the above point of view read Kevin Quinn's essay on " The ways sport preserves the ‘myth of race’"

Aswer to Question #5 by Lisa M. -- Physical educators began to realize that play was a natural developmental tool. Yet, initially play was not universally accepted as a legitimate activity in the curriculum. Most physical educators believed that play could be a part of a physical education curriculum, but that it should not be the focus. Edward Hartwell felt that sporting activities were forms of recreation; gymnastics on the other hand, taught discipline, and how to train for pleasure, health and skill. Sporting activities were deemed childish, and thus insufficient for physical education classes.

Answer to Essay #5 by Lynnae S. -- There were many discussions between the 1900’s and 1930 in relation to play and the role that it was to play in physical education and schools. Gymnastics was a primary reason for questioning what roe play would take in physical education. Herbert Spencer said that play was a way to release unneeded energy that will not contribute to the survival of the human species. As opposed to Karl Groos who believed that play was an instinctive and needed to be added to ones life experiences. Groo’s theory of physical education was a educational vehicle that could lead to the improvement in adult behavior. His theory was used to promote physical education as essential to individual development. Stanley Hal had thoughts that illustrated play as a fundamental form of history of the human species unlike gymnastics, which was not fundamental but only recently invented by humans. As an initial supporter of play in physical education, Luther Halsey Gulick contributed a lot of literature promoting play theory. Finally, John Dewey was one of the finest among educators and theorist in play theory. Dewey believed that a mind that was socialized and shared had more of a opportunity to develop. He believed that knowledge that was shared could be used to create consensual knowledge. Play was/is purposeful activity that directs interest through physical means.

Answer to Essay #6 by Lynnae S.

Answer to Essay #6 by Eve-Lynn B.

Instructor: Air planes, television (instant replay, multiple sports channels), big business, new materials (plastics, aluminum, kevlar, graphite, titanium....), advances in exercise physiology, biomechanics, nutrition, sport psychology, coaching..., computers and the Internet...

Information regarding this question may be found in chapter 12 in our text.

AnnMarie H. -- Modernization Theory is an organizational scheme used by historians to describe how a culture changes from a set of "premodern" characteristics to "modern" characteristic. It explain the changes in sport in the nineteenth century because modernization theory is used to relate to all types of changes to one to another. It demonstrate the difference between premodern characteristic to modern especially in sport. It is used to distinguish sport from play and games. Sport mirrored this change due to the fact that it help to civilize the technique use as a tool in teaching how to make the transition from traditional beliefs and practices to a more contemporary or modern ways.

Instructor: What are the premodern versus modern characteristics? Provide examples. How do these specific characteristics changed the way we participate in, observe, and understand sports?

Lynnae S. -- "Modernization theory is an organizational scheme used by historians to describe how a culture changes from a set of 'premodern' characteristics to 'modern' characteristics. Applied to sport, modernization theory argues that sport tends to change from a set of modern sports characteristics." In premodern sport there was a definite lack of organization (for example, sports lacked consistent rules for each sport) within the sports as opposed to now. The opportunity to be recognized for your athletic accomplishments on a nation wide scale was not available to the premodern athlete. Role differentiation between participants was very low among the participants, yet today there is a high emergence of professionals and a distinction between playing and spectating. The way the public is notified of events is also a lot greater today than it was in premodern times. Newspapers, magazines, computers and television are all tools that allow people to get the information today.

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